Life in Latin America

Brief description of some of the Latin American Countries: Brazil, Argentina, Panama, Costa Rica and Mexico

Argentina Oficial name: Argentine Republic Location: South of South America Boundries: Bolivia and Paraguay (N); Brasil (NE); Uruguay (E); Atlantic Ocean (E and SE); Chile (W y SW) Total territory : 3.761.274 km2 Coasts: 4.986 km Population: 36.223.947 (2001) Population Density: 9,63/km2 Ethnic Groups: White (85%); mestizo (10%); indigenous and others (5%) Capital City: Buenos Aires (2.776.138 hab) Language: Spanish Currency: Peso Government: Republic Getting to Argentina All airlines flying to Argentina arrive mainly at Ezeiza (“Ministro Pistarini”) International Airport, which is 37 Kilometres away from the City of Buenos Aires. You can reach the city by Teniente General Ricchieri freeway (Information: Tel. 5480-6111). When leaving the country, a US$ 18 tax must be paid. Company Manuel Tienda León (Av. Madero and San Martín, Tel. 4315-5115) offers a bus service from 5.00 a.m. to 8.30 p.m. This service costs between $ 25 and $ 27 (Argentine pesos), and the trip takes approximately 40 minutes. There are also taxis and chauffeur-driven rented cars (from $ 53 to $ 72). When to travel Remember that in the southern hemisphere seasons are the opposite to those in the northern hemisphere. In general, the summer is the best time to visit Patagonia and the Southern Andes because of the mild temperatures and long days. Wintertime is recommended for travelling to the North and Northwest as rains are less frequent and tropical temperatures drop a few degrees. Autumn and spring are marvelous in Buenos Aires, Cuyo and the pre-mountain range areas of La Rioja and Catamarca. Getting around Argentina By Plane Due to the large size of country, planes are best to travel long distances, and then take overland transportation to get to your final destination. Buying Airpass Visit Argentina in your own country, you’ll obtain lower prices for flights within Argentina. Aerolíneas Argentinas / Austral, LADE and LAN Argentina operate domestic flights. Domestic flights and flights to Uruguay depart from Jorge Newbery Airport, located to the north of the city beside the Río de la Plata. Airport taxes range from $ 7.05 to U$S 8. Domestic flights schedule from Buenos Aires to: San Salvador de Jujuy 2 hrs 10 mins Salta 2 hrs San Miguel de Tucumán 1 hr 50 mins Puerto Iguazú 1 hr 45 mins Posadas 1 hr 30 mins Rosario 52 mins Mendoza 1 hr 50 mins Córdoba 1 hr 15 mins Mar del Plata 45 mins San Carlos de Bariloche 2 hrs 20 mins Trelew 2 hrs Río Gallegos 2 hrs 55 mins El Calafate 3 hrs 15 mins Ushuaia 3 hrs 20 mins Airpass Visit Argentina Valid for: - Foreign visitors or Argentines residing abroad. - Foreign tourists holding Aerolíneas Argentinas international air tickets or another international airline (published fares), on domestic flight connections served by Aerolíneas Argentinas and Austral (AR/AU). -Valid through: All year. Fares From Buenos Aires: - Economy Class: U$S 62 to U$S 209 each coupon. International flight by Aerolíneas Argentinas. - Economy Class: U$S 80 to U$S 271 each coupon. International flight by other airlines. From Córdoba: - Economy Class: U$S 74 to U$S 162 each coupon. International flight by Aerolíneas Argentinas. - Economy Class: U$S 96 to U$S 211 each coupon. International flight by other airlines. From Puerto Iguazú: - Economy Class: U$S 153 to U$S 162 each coupon. International flight by Aerolíneas Argentinas. - Economy Class: U$S 199 to U$S 211 each coupon. International flight by other airlines. From Salta and San Salvador de Jujuy: - Economy Class: U$S 186 to U$S 189 each coupon. International flight by Aerolíneas Argentinas. - Economy Class: U$S 23 to U$S 246 each coupon. International flight by other airlines. From Mendoza: - Economy Class: U$S 63 to U$S 162 each coupon. International flight by Aerolíneas Argentinas. - Economy Class: U$S 82 to U$S 211 each coupon. International flight by other airlines. From San Carlos de Bariloche: - Economy Class: U$S 26 to U$S 341 each coupon. International flight by Aerolíneas Argentinas. - Economy Class: U$S 33 to U$S 443 each coupon. International flight by other airlines. Child and Infant fares: - Accompanied children between 2 and 11 years old and infants under 2 years old with seat assigned: 100% of Adult Fare. Infants under 2 years old without seat assigned: 10% of Adult Fare. Maximum stay - The whole trip must be completed before expiration date of international ticket. - Ticket validity must not be postponed. Reservations and issuance: - Reservations for the first flight coupon, the total payment and issuance of all the itinerary must be completed at the same time and before flight departure from the first international sector. - The remaining flight coupons must be booked any time. - Reservation change: permitted. - Stopovers: None allowed. - Routing: When a city is used as connecting point, the segment flown will be computed for coupon calculation. - Routing changes: Not allowed. Advertising and sales - Outside Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay and Uruguay. - Only one Airpass Visit Argentina will be allowed per each paid international ticket bound for Argentina. - No PTAs allowed. Cancellation and refund - There is no reimbursement for cancellation, refund or no show. By Bus Buenos Aires bus station is located at Av. Ramos Mejia 1680 close to Retiro Station (Tel. 4310-0700). Long-distance buses are equipped with toilets, air conditioning and bar. Distances from Buenos Aires: Bahia Blanca 660 Km Río Grande 2.850 Km Cafayate 1.703 Km Rosario 306 Km Córdoba 710 Km Salta 1.605 Km Corrientes 1.074 Km San Antonio de Areco 114 Km El Calafate 2.681 Km San Carlos de Bariloche 1.627 Km Esquel 2.050 Km San Juan 1.119 Km Formosa 1.181 Km San Luis 820 Km Humahuaca 1.782 Km San Martín de los Andes 1.607 Km La Plata 52 Km San Miguel de Tucumán 1.310 Km La Rioja 1.168 Km San Rafael 999 Km Luján 64 Km San Salvador de Jujuy 1.654 Km Mar del Plata 410 Km Santa Fe 476 Km Mendoza 1.037 Km Santa Rosa 607 Km Neuquén 1.156 Km Santiago del Estero 1.150 Km Paraná 495 Km Termas de Río Hondo 1.150 Km Pinamar 401 Km Tigre 33 Km Posadas 1.060 Km Trelew 1.436 Km Puerto Iguazú 1.346 Km Ushuaia 3.171 Km Puerto Madryn1.382 Km Viedma 970 Km Rawson 1.441 Km Valle de Las Leñas 1.218 Km Resistencia 1.019 Km Villa Gesell 416 Km Río Gallegos 2.630 Km Villa La Angostura 1.695 Km By Train Ferrobaires (Constitución Station, Tel. 4304-0028/31/38); TBA (Retiro Station, Tel. 4317-4407/45); Ferrocentral (Retiro Station, Tel. 4312-2989); Trenes del Litoral (Federico Lacroze Station, Tel. 4554-8018). By Car (Car rental) All international car rental companies operate in Argentina. The following companies have offices in Buenos Aires: Ai Rent a Car International (Maipú 965, Tel. 4311-1000), Alamo Rent a Car - National (Carlos Pellegrini 1175, 1st Floor “C”, Tel. 4322-3320), Avis Rent a Car (Cerrito 1527, Tel. 4326-5542), Budget Rent a Car ((Marcelo T. de Alvear 590, 10th Floor, Tel. 4311-4555), Dollar Rent a Car (M.T. de Alvear 449, Tel. 4315-8800), Hertz - Annie Millet Rent a Car (Paraguay 1138, Tel. 4816-8001), Localiza Rent a Car (Av. Alicia Moreau de Justo 1180, 2nd Floor, Off. 205 “C”, Tel. 4121-5600), Thrifty Car Rental (Carlos Pellegrini 1576, Loc.24, Tel. 4326-0418). Shopping in Argentina VAT return At the airport you may obtain a VAT reimbursement corresponding to any purchases made within the country for an amount over $70 (per invoice) and in shops operating with the “Global Refund” system. Payment methods Although US Dollars and Euros are generally taken everywhere, foreign currencies can be exchanged in banks and authorized bureaus. American Express, VISA, Diners and Master Card are widely accepted. There may be difficulties in changing traveler's check outside Buenos Aires. Opening hours Banks and Exchange Bureaus: Mondays to Fridays from 10.00 a.m. to 3.00 p.m. Business Offices: generally from 9.00 a.m. to 12.00 p.m. and from 2.00 p.m. to 7.00 p.m. Stores: in the big cities from 9.00 a.m. to 8.00 p.m., although in the outskirts and the provinces they generally close at midday. Saturdays, from 9.00 a.m. to 1.00 p.m. Cafés, cake shops and pizzerias: open most of the time except between 2.00 and 6.00 a.m. Restaurants: lunch is served as from 12.30 p.m. and dinner as from 8.30 hours. Fast-food menus are served in many restaurants at all times. Tips 10% of the amount of the check is usually left in cafeterias and restaurants. Doormen, porters, and ushers in cinemas and theatres are also generally tipped. General Information Documents and formalities Valid passport with or without visa depending on your nationality. Inquire at the closest Embassy or Consulate. Visitors coming from countries not bordering Argentina are exempt from all taxes on travelling articles and new articles up to US$ 300 and an additional US$ 300, if purchased at duty free shops within the national territory. No vaccination certificate is required to enter the country. Telephone Pay phones work with cards that may be purchased in kiosks and telephone companies’ offices, or with legal tender coins. There are also stores with pay phones (open 24 hours a day) where you can pay in cash. Calling to Argentina from abroad, dial the country code (54) and then the area code of the place you want to call. For domestic calls, dial 0 before the area code. For international calls, dial 00, the country code and city code. Calls are cheaper from 10.00 p.m. to 8.00 a.m. Maps Maps may be purchased at the offices of the Automóvil Club Argentino (Av. del Libertador 1850, Tel. 4808-4000, Buenos Aires, cartogra@aca.org.ar). Tourist information National Secretariat of Tourism, Tourist Information Centers: Av. Santa Fe 883, (C1059ABC) Buenos Aires, Tel. 4312-2232 or 0800-555-0016; Ezeiza International Airport and Jorge Newbery Airport; info@turismo.gov.ar. Buenos Aires Information Centres: Av. Pte. Quintana 596 (Recoleta), Retiro Bus Station (Local 83), Florida 100. Av. Alicia Moreau de Justo 200 (Dock 4, Puerto Madero), Defensa 1250 (San Telmo); infobue@buenosaires.gov.ar. Security Prevention and Tourist Assistance: Comisaría del Turista: Av. Corrientes 436, (C1043AAR) Buenos Aires. Tel. 4346-5748, 4328-2135 ó 0800-999-5000, e-mail: turista@policiafederal.gov.ar. Defensoría del Turista: Av. Pedro de Mendoza 1835 (Museo de Bellas Artes de La Boca "Don Benito Quinquela Martín"), (C1169AAC) Buenos Aires. Tel. 4302-7816, Fax: 4302-7816, e-mail: turista@defensoria.org.ar. Interesting facts The name Argentina It comes from the Latin term “argentum”, which means silver. The origin of this name goes back to the first voyages made by the Spanish conquerors to the Río de la Plata. The survivors of the shipwrecked expedition mounted by Juan Díaz de Solís found indigenous people in the region who gave them silver objects as presents. The news about the legendary Sierra del Plata - a mountain rich in silver - reached Spain around 1524. As from this date, the Portuguese named the river of Solís, Río de la Plata (River of Silver). Two years later the Spanish used the same name. The National Constitution adopted in 1853 included the name “República Argentina” (Argentine Republic) among the official names to designate the government and the country’s territory. Location, area and frontiers Located in South America, and thus, in the southern hemisphere, Argentina has an area of almost 3.8 million square kilometers, 2.8 on the continent – approximately 54% are plains (grasslands and savannahs), 23%, plateaus, and the other 23%, mountains - and the remainder in the Antarctic. It is 3,800 kilometres long and is located between latitude 22º and 55º. Its border with Uruguay, Brazil, Paraguay, Bolivia and Chile has a perimeter of 9,376 kilometres, while the territory bordered by the Atlantic Ocean is 4,725 Kilometres long. Geography Argentina’s most distinctive feature is its enormous difference between the immense eastern plains and the impressive Andes mountain range to the west. This is the frontier with Chile and boasts the highest peak in the Western hemisphere: the 6,959 m high Aconcagua. From Jujuy to Tierra del Fuego, the Andes present marvelous contrasts: the Northwest plateaus, the lake region, the forests and glaciers in the Patagonia. To the north, Chaco is a forested area linked to rivers Bermejo, Salado and Pilcomayo. Between the Paraná and Uruguay rivers, the Argentine Mesopotamia (provinces of Entre Ríos, Corrientes and Misiones) is formed by low hills, where pools and marshlands show the ancient courses of these great rivers. In some places within the subtropical rain forest, there are fissures which provide such spectacular phenomena as the Iguazú Falls. The Pampas, in the center of Argentina, is the largest and best-known area of plains. Agricultural and livestock activities are performed in this area, which includes the province of Buenos Aires, the northeast of La Pampa, the south of Córdoba and south of Santa Fe. To the south, the plains give way to small hills in Tandil and de la Ventana, and to the west, to the Córdoba hills. Towards the south, from the Andes to the sea, there are sterile and stony plateaus of Patagonia, swept by the wind during most of the year. The Atlantic coast, lined with high cliffs, forms massive indentations like the Peninsula Valdés, with its spectacular and unique colonies of sea animals. Climate The territory of the country has a wide variety of climates: subtropical in the North, sub-Antarctic in the southern Patagonia, and mild and humid in the Pampas plains. Media temperature from November to March is 23° C, and 12° C from June to September. Population The current population of Argentina is 36 million inhabitants, almost half of which live in the city and the province of Buenos Aires. Population density calculated on a national basis is 13 inhabitants per square kilometer. 95% of the population is white and most are descendants of Italians and Spaniards. As a result of the massive European immigration, the white and indigenous half-castes diminished and at the present they amount only to 4.5% of the population. The pure indigenous population -Mapuches, Collas, Tobas, Matacos and Chiriguanos- amount to 0.5% of the population. Language Spanish is the official language of the Argentine Republic. In Buenos Aires, some “lunfardo” expressions -city slang - are used. Religion There is complete religious freedom in Argentina, although the official religion is Roman Catholic. Other religions practiced in the country are Protestant, Jewish, Greek Orthodox, Russian Orthodox and others. Currency The official Argentine currency is the Peso. There are bills of 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 pesos, and coins of 1 peso and 1, 5, 10, 25, and 50 cents. Constitution and Government Argentina consists of 23 provinces plus a federal district, the City of Buenos Aires. The Argentine Constitution establishes a Republic under a representative and federal system, and three separate branches of government: executive, legislative and judicial. The executive branch is exercised by the President and Vice-president of the Nation, elected for a 4-year term. The legislative branch is bicameral: the Senate (composed of three senators from each province and from the City of Buenos Aires) and the House of Representatives (composed of representatives elected directly and in proportion to each district’s population). The judicial branch “is vested in the Supreme Court and lower courts of justice”. Each province has adopted its own Constitution in accordance with the National Constitution to rule its administration. The current National Constitution dates from 1853. Nevertheless, it was amended in 1860, 1898, 1957 and 1994. The last amendment made in August 1994, allows the President’s reelection for an additional term. Two historical dates May 25, 1810. The first "Gobierno Patrio" or National Government Assembly was constituted. July 9, 1816. Proclamation of Independence by the “Provincias Unidas del Río de la Plata”. Argentine national holidays: January 1st New Year March 24 National Day of Memory for Truth and Justice March/April * Easter - Good Friday April 2** Veterans’ Day and tribute to the fallen in the Falklands War May 1St Labor Day May 25 Anniversary of the First Independent Argentine Government June 20*** National Flag Day July 9 National Independence Day August 17*** Anniversary of the death of General José de San Martín October 12** Columbus Day December 8 Immaculate Conception Day December 25 Christmas Day * Floating Holiday. ** If the date falls on a Tuesday or Wednesday, the holiday will be effective on the preceding Monday; if it falls on Thursday or Friday, the holiday will be effective the following Monday. *** Holiday effective the third Monday of the month. The South: Patagonia The Andes mountain range shows its beauty in the Patagonian provinces. Millennial silent forests with native vegetable species are extended along the shores of glistening waters. On top of the mountains, nature overflows with granite peaks and ice fields spreading their glacier tongues into lakes of unsurpassable beauty. Strange sea mammals and birds, half-way between real life and legend, spend certain seasons on the rough coasts of Patagonia where they complete part of their life cycle. Seals play on the islets and sandbanks. The world’s most important southern elephant seal continental colony is located in Peninsula Valdés. Every year, Southern Right whales come to Nuevo and San José gulfs to breed. Patagonian hares, “ñandúes” (South American ostrich) and “guanacos” run about the steppes, and the largest colony of Magellanic penguins in the world is located in Punta Tombo. This life cycle, repeated for ages, unfolds itself in front of the astonished eyes of the visitors. In the south, Tierra del Fuego and the southernmost city in the world, Ushuaia, are the gateway towards the vast and mysterious Antarctica. The Centre: The Pampas and the Sierras The Pampas plains are amongst the wealthiest areas in Argentina. They have the magic of wide-open spaces with an unlimited horizon, and they are the land of the gauchos, traditional Argentine country men. The estancias (ranches) in the Argentine Pampas are remarkable because of their varied architecture. They were built in widely differing styles such as colonial Hispanic-American, English Tudor, and classic French. Many of them have been transformed into tourist accommodations. Towards the Northwest of these plains are the Sierras of Córdoba. The highest peak, Mount Champaquí, towers some 2,790 meters above its surroundings. Its fertile valleys contrast with deserts and salt pans, a particularly appealing landscape. Towards the North, scattered chapels and “estancias” begin to appear. These constructions date back to the 17th and 18th centuries, and many of them are a Jesuit legacy. The West: Cuyo Cuyo - “desert country” in the Indian language - is the region of the high peaks, the snow-covered volcanoes, and the large wilderness spreading from the Andes mountain range and foothills to the steppe. The visit to Ischigualasto - Talampaya Natural Parks, is a true journey to the dinosaur’s era. Ischigualasto, also known as “Valle de la Luna” (Moon Valley) because of the amazing diversity of forms and colours of its landscape shaped by erosion, is one of the world’s most important paleontology digging sites. The Talampaya River Canyon reveals amazing multi-shaped layers in its high red walls. Pink flamingos, Andean ducks, “vicuñas” and “guanacos” cohabit freely in parks and natural reserves, while condors fly over the area. The region displays the full splendour of the Central Andean Range. The Aconcagua (6.959 m) is the highest peak in the Western Hemisphere, and its steep slopes are famous amongst mountain climbers from all over the world. In the valleys of La Rioja, Mendoza and San Juan, among leaves of grapevines, farms and wineries, visitors can go along the Wine Road, an internationally renowned attraction. The Northwest Northern provinces feature traces of pre-Columbian cultures, mingled with ruins of villages, as well as forts and constructions dating back to the time of the Conquest and Colonization. Time seems to stand still in the high plateau of the Puna, a land full of mountain ranges, steep mountain paths, and gorges. Villages have been built in the small valleys. Multi-coloured and monochromatic hills covered with huge cactuses on the slopes surround the village. This region offers landscapes full of contrast for tourists to enjoy, from the high peaks to the plains, the salt pans, and the subtropical rain forests, where Latin American culture roots. The East: Litoral This is a region of large rivers, humid tropics, red earth, magnificent forest, a virgin forest full of huge trees and extraordinary flora and fauna. Great Waters –“Iguazú” in the Guaraní language– flow into one of the world’s wonders: the Iguazú Falls. A scenery of exuberant beauty spreading along the Iguazú National Park, Saltos del Moconá (Moconá Falls), Río Pilcomayo National Park, El Palmar National Park, Esteros del Iberá (Iberá Swamps) or the plains of Chaco. An apotheosis of nature, where the Jesuit ruins, declared World Heritage by the UNESCO, are a vivid testimony of the Society of Jesus’ fruitful work. Argentine Republic Foreign Office : www.mrecic.gov.ar Argentine Republic Secretariat of Tourism : www.turismo.gov.ar Argentine Republic Ministry of Interior. Migrations : www.mininterior.gov.ar Buenos Aires City Hall: www.buenosaires.gov.ar Main Newspapers Buenos Aires Herald: www.buenosairesherald.com English Language Newspaper Argentinisches Tageblatt: www.tageblatt.com.ar German Language Newspaper Clarín: www.clarin.com.ar Página/12: www.pagina12.com.ar

Brazil Capital: Brasilia Location: 15°45′S 47°57′W Largest city: São Paulo Official language: Portuguese Government: Presidential Federal republic Independence from Portugal: - Declared September 7, 1822 - Recognised August 29, 1825 - Republic November 15, 1889 Area: 5th in the World Total: 8,514,877 km² (3,287,597 sq mi) Water (%): 0.65 Population: 188,078,261 (5th) (2006 estimate) Density: Density 22 /km² (182nd) (57 /sq mi) GDP (PPP) : Total $943.6 billion[1] (10th) (2006 estimate) Per capita $5,017 (74th) HDI (2004) : 0.792 (medium) (69th) Currency: Real (BRL) Calling code: +55 Internet TLD: .br Member of: UN, OAS, CSN, CPLP, Mercosur About Brazil Brazil is the largest country in Latin America. It spreads across almost half (47.3%) of South America, and occupies a total area of 8,547,403.5 km2. It is the fifth largest country in the world after Canada, the Russian Federation, China and the United States. Except for a small number of islands, Brazil is a single and continuous landmass. The Equator crosses through the Northern region, near Macapa, and the Tropic of Capricorn cuts through the South of the country, near São Paulo. Brazil’s east to west extension (4,319.4 km) is almost equivalent to the distance from north to south (4,394.7 km). The country borders French Guiana, Suriname, Guiana, Venezuela and Colombia, to the north; Uruguay and Argentina, to the south; and Paraguay, Bolivia and Peru, to the west. Ecuador and Chile are the only two countries on the South American continent that do not border Brazil. The Atlantic Ocean extends along the country’s entire eastern coast, providing 7,367 km of coastline. Language of Brazil The official language is Portuguese; the accent and the intonation, however, are very different from what one hears in Portugal and other former Portuguese colonies. Some people say that Brazilians speak “Brazilian”, just like Americans can say they speak “American”, and not English. And there are also many Brazilians who are descendants of immigrants and who speak German and Italian, especially in towns in southern Brazil. Brazil – a country which greets visitors with a huge smile The mixture of races has made Brazil a culturally rich and at the same time unique country. This miscegenation began with the Indian, the African and the Portuguese, but soon after, immigrants from around the world began to arrive: Europeans, Asians, Jews and Arabs. The result is a happy people, open to everything new, a people one can only find in Brazil. Because of this massive diversity, Brazil is one of the last places on Earth where no one is a foreigner, where one can change one’s destiny without losing one’s identity and where each and every Brazilian has a little of the entire world in his or her blood. This may be the reason why Brazilian’s welcome people from another land so openly. According to surveys carried out with foreign tourists who visited the country, 97.2% intend to return soon; 56.5% had their expectations completely satisfied; and, for 31.7%, it exceeded their expectations in every way. As you can see, those who go to Brazil become fans on their first visit. Brazilian democracy Brazil has been a Republic since 1889. Throughout this entire period, the country actually experienced little more than thirty years of democracy (1946-1964 and from 1985 to the present). Nevertheless, it is one of the most democratic nations on Earth. Brazilian democracy, which was won back after 21 years of a military dictatorship, proved to be vigorous and became an important part of the life of its people. The National Congress has been operating like clockwork for 175 years. In the entire history of the country, only on three occasions did the elected representatives not complete their terms. The strength of the Congress is actually so great that not even the military dictatorship of the 1960s could do without it. There have been national elections in Brazil since 1823. And these elections have been open to voters in a manner almost unheard of even for European democracy standards. Useful Information Visas and Passports Tourists and visitors from Mercosul countries do not need to present passports. They merely need to show their ID cards. Visitors from other countries must present a passport that is valid for the next six months. Electricity Voltage Electricity voltages vary from one state to another. Check the voltage before connecting any electrical appliance to an outlet. Car Hire All the well know car hire firms have counters at the country’s main airports and in the main urban centers. Tourists may also book cars through their travel agencies. Taxis The tourist may opt to take an ordinary taxi easily found in the streets or through radio taxi services. It is recommended that accredited taxi services at the airports and at points nearby the main hotels be given priority. It is not usual in Brazil to tip a taxi driver although it is common to round off the amount and let the driver keep the change as a gratuity. Tips Most bars and restaurants include a service charge of 10% in the Bill. It is usual to leave a little extra if the service has been satisfactory. When no service charge has been included then a tip of 10% to 15% is the general rule. Currency The Brazilian currency unit is the Real ($R). Dollars and Travelers Checks can easily be changed in hotels, banks or travel agencies. Most establishments accept credit cards. Communications To make an international call, dial: 00 + operator code* + country code + area code (if there is one) + telephone number For reverse charge international calls dial 0800 7032111. Operators: Brasil Telecom 14 Embratel 21 CTBC 34 GVT 25 Intelig 23 Telefónica 15 Telemar 31 Language The national language is Portuguese but it is a little different from the Portuguese spoken in Portugal Climate The climate is predominantly tropical with some variation according to the region. The average annual temperature in the north is 28º C and 22º C in the south. Time Zones Because of its continental dimensions Brazil has 4 time zones. The official time is Brasília time and it corresponds to 3 hours less than GMT. From September to February the clocks are put forward one hour in most Brazilian States. History of Brazil A brief history of Brazil begins with the arrival of the first indigenous peoples, over 8,000 years ago, into the present territory of that nation. It is widely accepted that Brazil was first "discovered" by Europeans on April 22, 1500, by Pedro Álvares Cabral. From the 16th to the 19th centuries, Brazil was a colony of Portugal. On September 7, 1822, the country declared its independence from Portugal and became a constitutional monarchy, the Empire of Brazil. A military coup in 1889 established a republican government. The country has been nominally a democratic republic ever since, except for three periods of overt dictatorship (1930–1934; 1937–1945 and 1964–1985). Brazil is today South America's largest economy, the world's ninth largest economy, and fifth most populous nation. A country in motion The land area of Brazil extends over 8.5 million square kilometers, occupying just under half (47%) of the area of Latin America. The country possesses 20% of all the world’s biodiversity; an example of this natural wealth is the Amazon Rainforest, with 3.6 million square kilometers. The political and administrative organization comprises three main Branches of Power: the Judiciary, the Executive and the Legislative, and the principle of autonomy among the Union, the Federal District, 26 states and 5,563 towns and cities (IBGE/2003). Ranking fifth among the world’s most populated countries, the population of Brazil amounts to 50 million families or approximately 180 million inhabitants (2004), the majority - 81% - in urban areas. The national birth rate, which reached as high as 6.3 in 1960, currently stands at 2.1 children per female. The result of this decline, which can be associated to an improvement in social indicators and consequently in quality of life, will be a population whose majority of citizens will be aged between 15 and 44 years within the next four decades. This will represent one of the largest job and consumer markets among the countries on the American continent. Diversified Economy Brazil accounts for three fifths of the South American economy’s industrial production and integrates various economic groups, such as Mercosur, G-22 and the Cairns Group. The country’s scientific and technological development, together with a dynamic and diversified industrial sector, is attractive to foreign enterprise: direct investment was in the region of US$ 20 billion /year on average, compared to US$ 2 billion/year last decade. Brazil trades regularly with over one hundred nations, with 74% of exports represented by manufactured or semimanufactured goods. Its main partners are: the EEC (representing 26% of the balance), the US (24%), Mercosur and Latin America (21%) and Asia (12%). One of the most dynamic sectors in this trade scenery is the so-called “agrobusiness” sector, which for two decades has kept Brazil amongst the most highly productive countries in areas related to the rural sector. The owner of a sophisticated technological sector, Brazil develops projects that range from submarines to aircraft and is involved in space research: the country possesses a Launching Center for Light Vehicles and was the only country in the Southern Hemisphere to integrate the team responsible for the construction of the International Space Station-the ISS. A pioneer in the field of deep water oil research, from where 73% of its reserves are extracted, Brazil was the first capitalist country to bring together the ten largest car assembly companies inside its national territory. Government system of Brazil The Federative Republic of Brazil is a democratic State by rights, with a Presidential system of government. The President of the Republic performs two functions: those of Head of State and Head of the Federal Government. The Presidency of the Republic and the Vice-presidency are in the foremost position of federal public administration, assisted by the ministers, with the subordination of the government bureaus, autarchies, foundations, public companies and other directly or indirectly controlled entities. In accordance with the 1988 National Constitution, the Federal Government acts decisively in the life of the Brazilian people, be it by establishing rules, implementing programs or rendering services to the population. For the execution of programs, the Federal Government establishes priorities for the application of public resources, planned over a four-year period. Such priorities are described in the Pluri-Annual Plan (PPA), which must be submitted by the President to National Congress. The Plan establishes, furthermore, the liaison between the long term programs and the Annual Budgetary Law. Direct free vote Only native-born Brazilians with a minimum 35 years of age may occupy the Presidency of the Republic. In addition, they must be democratically chosen, by way of direct elections, and obtain an absolute majority of votes. Elections are direct and to be carried out, simultaneously, throughout the country, on the first Sunday in October of the year prior to the end of the presidential term. The duration for each term is four years, with a single possibility for re-election, and starting date of January 1st of the year following the electoral polls. Since 1822, the year in which Brazil achieved its independence from Portugal, up to the present day, the Executive Power has been exercised practically without interruption. The first Constitution, of 1824, conferred the leadership of the Executive Branch upon Emperor D. Pedro I. Following the proclamation of the Republic in 1889, the president was elected by the people. Between the years of 1961 and 1963, Brazil experienced a brief period of a parliamentary government system. With the military coup in 1964, indirect elections were adopted in which the President was elected by an electoral House, at a public session and by means of a nominal voting system. With the country’s return to democracy, presidential elections were once again carried out by means of a direct and secret voting system, in 1985. Brazil: A country for everyone Brazil is unique for its richness of nature, culture, economy and history. This lends the country a Wonderland quality, with countless tourist attractions, and diversity as its main instrument to fulfill this potential. Beaches, forests, mountains, rivers, festivals, diversified cuisine, national parks, and historical towns are scattered among 26 states and the Federal District, where the Capital, Brasília, is located. This racial mixture has generated a nation of happy, sharing people, a country where all come together under their differences and diversity, in an environment of peaceful coexistence. Brazil is indeed, a country for everyone. In addition, its economic growth allied to the country’s strategic position in the South American makes it a focal point for attracting technical, commercial and social events, which in conjunction with the leisure options, define Brazil as a special country, with such a plethora of travel opportunities on offer. Tourism in Brazil Very few tourist destinations are able to offer such varied options as Brazil. Its natural beauties, the enormous popular festivities and the countless protected environmental reserves are priceless attractions, which amaze foreign tourists when the time comes for them to choose their holiday destination. Everyone has already heard of Rio de Janeiro, Carnival, the Amazon or the country’s beautiful beaches. Recent surveys carried out by Embratur (Brazilian Tourism Institute) revealed that the most sought after Brazilian location is Rio de Janeiro. Also called “Cidade Maravilhosa”, or Enchanting City, this capital of the state of Rio de Janeiro flaunts breathtaking scenery, and is also home to the largest popular festivity in the world: Carnival. This grandiose celebration, a yearly gathering of thousands of merrymakers, who dance and watch the Samba School parades, attracts a significant number of foreign visitors to the grandstands and box seats lining the Marques de Sapucai Avenue. Carnival is also present in the schedules of several other Brazilian cities, attracting the interest of a great many foreigners who visit Brazil. São Paulo follows Rio’s example, and it too puts on some lively Samba School parades; in Pernambuco, it is the merrymakers of Olinda and Recife who, wearing fancy costumes, dancing in the streets following music groups on floats and maracatus, and carrying the famous gigantic dolls are the ones who stand out; in Salvador, capital of Bahia, the fun is provided by trios eletricos, mobile stages which attract thousands of followers, dancing along behind them, until sunrise, to the sound of the axe music from Bahia. The country’s beautiful beaches and natural wonders also capture people’s attention and attract 35% of the tourists, according to surveys carried out by Embratur. With a coastline extending for more than seven thousand kilometres, Brazil has the privilege of being able to offer several leisure options in this segment. Among the most visited in the country, are the famous beaches of Ipanema and Copacabana, on the coast of Rio de Janeiro; Joaquina, in the South of the country, is known for the national and international surf championships held there; Praia do Forte, along the North coast of Bahia, the headquarters for the Tamar Project for the preservation of sea turtles; and the natural beauty of the beaches in the Fernando de Noronha archipelago. And one must not forget Ecotourism, a segment which has attracted a flock of new followers over the past few years. According to data from the Ecotourism Society, average annual growth has been from 10% to15%. Those interested in this type of travel total 5% of the entire world tourist flow, or approximately 35 million people. And Brazil is one of the destinations in this segment showing the greatest potential for growth, since it is where one of the world’s icons for ecology and biodiversity, the Amazon region, is located -- in the North of the country and spread over some 5.5 million square kilometres. It is estimated that the forests alone in the Amazon region harbour 60% of all life forms on the planet – more than half of which are still unknown to science. Midwest Region of Brazil This Region is right in the heart of Brazil, representing 18.86% of the national territory. It comprises the States of Goiás, Mato Grosso do Sul, Mato Grosso and the Federal District. The economy in the Midwest Region is essentially based on cattle breeding, which took the place of gold and precious stone prospecting, which were local activities in the past. With the move of the country's federal capital from Rio de Janeiro to Brasília in the 60s, the construction of roads and railways to the interior of the country made the accesses easier, speeding up the population settling and contributing significantly to its development. The Brazilian largest manganese reserve is in the Midwest Region, at Urucum Woods. Tourism has grown at impressive speed in the last decades there, attracting visitors from several parts of Brazil and the world; who all enjoy the Region's flora and fauna riches, as well as its innumerous marvelous views. Located in the middle of vast Central Upland, the Midwest Region reveals how attractive the tours in the interior of the country can be. Starting in the west part of Mato Grosso do Sul State and the southeast part of Mato Grosso State, we have Pantanal Mato-grossense; the largest swampy plain area in the world, cut by Paraguai River. Its fauna and flora riches draw the attention of the world. In the same state, it's possible to take tours through pleasant places, such as Alta Floresta, where ecotourism is the greatest attraction; Bonito, one of the places with the most crystalline waters in the country; and Chapada dos Guimarães National Park, full of mountains and beautiful landscapes offered by the meadow vegetation. Dividing the States of Mato Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul and Goiás, Araguaia River attracts innumerous fishermen from all parts of Brazil and the world. The State of Tocantins has rich Jalapão, a place for ecotourism and adventure sports. And in the State of Goiás, historical attractions, such as Pirenópolis draw many visitors all year long, with its steep stone-paved streets and its colonial houses. Other attractions in the same state include Chapada dos Veadeiros and the National Park of Emas, where the contact with the nature is the essence of the tours. In the Federal District, the National Park of Brasília is one of the greatest local attractions. Hikes in the middle of the nature, adventurous sports and much of the country's history can be found in the Midwest Region. North Region of Brazil The North Region is composed of the following states: Acre, Amapá, Amazonas, Pará, Rondônia, Roraima and Tocantins. This is the largest Region of Brazil, corresponding to 45.27% of the national territory. Its demographic density is the lowest considering all the regions of the country, with only 2.92 inhabitants per km2. Most people live in the urban area, and its largest metropolis is Belém, capital of Pará State. The economy of the North Region is essentially based on the vegetal plantation and extraction, such as latex, assai, woods and nuts; and mineral extraction of gold, precious stones, cassiterite and tin (metal); as well as mining exploitation, mainly iron, at Carajás Mountain Range (in the State of Pará) and manganese, at Navio Mountain Range (in the State of Amapá). Tourism is one of the economic sectors that have widely grown in the last years in all the North Region of the country. Its natural riches and the wide variety of fauna and flora attract hundreds of tourists and people who like ecotourism and sport fishing, as well as ornithologists and adventurers every year, all of them always searching for the tranquility of the contact with the nature. Amazon, Jalapão, National Park of Jaú, Mamirauá Reserve, and the great festival of Círio de Nazaré are only some of the attractions waiting for you in the largest Region of Brazil. North East Region of Brazil The Northeast Region is composed of the following states: Maranhão, Piauí, Ceará, Rio Grande do Norte, Paraíba, Pernambuco, Alagoas, Sergipe and Bahia, and it represents 18.26% of the Brazilian territory. Its economy is mainly based on the production of sugar, cocoa and cotton; as well as the extensive cattle breeding. Some time ago, at São Francisco River Valley (between States of Bahia and Pernambuco), fruits for export started being produced too. At the seaside and the continental platform of the Region, the main activity is the exploitation of oil, which is later processed in the State of Bahia. Tourism has grown significantly in the Region in the last decades, showing the high potential of each State, and generating excellent perspectives for the future. The Northeast Region has about 46 million people, which represents 28.9% of the total number in the whole country. Most of the population lives in the urban area. The most important cities of this Region are: Salvador, capital of Bahia State; Recife, capital of Pernambuco State and Fortaleza, capital of Ceará State. Besides the capitals, most coastal cities of the Northeast Region have innumerous natural beauties, such as the Marine National Park of Abrolhos, Itacaré, Comandatuba Island, Costa do Sauípe, Canavieiras and Porto Seguro, in the State of Bahia; the Marine National Park of Fernando de Noronha, in the State of Pernambuco; tropical paradises, such as Canoa Quebrada and Jericoacoara, on the coast of Ceará, as well as the places to practice free flight, as Quixadá and Sobral; and Lençóis Maranhenses, embellishing the coast of Maranhão State, among many others. But the Northeast Region has much more. In the interior area, several riches are kept, as National Parks of Serra da Capivara and Sete Cidades, both in the State of Piauí; João Pessoa, in the State of Paraíba; Chapada Diamantina, in the State of Bahia; and many other attractions. South Region of Brazil Corresponding to only 6.75% of the national territory, the South Region is the smallest of all regions. It comprises three states: Paraná, Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul. Its main characteristics are the strong European colonial influences of immigrants from Germany, Italy and Azores, present in several cities and the traditional hospitable spirit of the South Region's population: approximately 25 million people. In the past, its economy was based only on agricultural and cattle raising activities. However, some years ago, an important industrial park was created and has developed a lot, directing the attention to the Cities of Porto Alegre, capital of Rio Grande do Sul State, and Curitiba, capital of Paraná State. In the agricultural production, the utilization of modern cultivation techniques turned wheat, soy, rice, corn, beans and tobacco into the main products marketed by the region. In cattle breeding, herds of European types are raised. Vegetal extraction, mainly of pinewood; swine breeding; charcoal reserves and meat processing industries that provide for both domestic and international markets, are some other activities that ensure the Region a balanced and stable economy. It has also a great hydroelectric potential, as it can be seen at huge Itaipu Power Plant, located at Paraná River, right between Brazil and Paraguay, and near Iguaçu National Park, which has wonderful views and several attractions to be in contact with the nature. Also in the State of Paraná, it is possible to enjoy very beautiful beaches at Ilha do Mel - the "Honey Island" and at Superagüi National Park. In Santa Catarina State, beaches such as Joinville, Bombinhas, Garopaba, Florianópolis and Blumenau are the most visited ones. In the State of Rio Grande do Sul, highlights are: Torres, at the seaside; and Porto Alegre, São Miguel das Missões, Cambará do Sul, Gramado and Canela, in the interior area. Southwest Region of Brazil It's composed of four states: Espírito Santo, Minas Gerais, Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo. It represents 10.85% of the national territory and is located on the highest part of the Atlantic Upland, which comprises Mantiqueira, Mar and Espinhaço mountain ranges, making the view a real chain of hills. Southeast Region has the highest number of population: approximately 70 million people. It's widely known as it has the two most outstanding metropolises of the country: São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro. The City of Belo Horizonte, capital of Minas Gerais State, also ranks high, as it is the largest regional metropolis. The economic area of the Southeast Region is the most developed and industrialised in the country. It has large herds of cattle, as well as important agricultural production, including sugar cane, orange and coffee cultures. It also has significant iron and manganese reserves at Espinhaço mountain range, in the State of Minas Gerais; and a reserve with good quantity of oil at Campos basin, in the State of Rio de Janeiro. In tourism, there are innumerous options in this Region. The State of Minas Gerais has the most varied tours, from Lagoa Santa and Sete Lagoas caves to the waterfalls of Grande Sertão Veredas National Park, not to mention the historical cities, such as Ouro Preto, Tiradentes, Sabará, Mariana, São João del Rei and Congonhas do Campo. Highlights in the State of Espírito Santo include the state capital, Vitória, where the sport fishing is the greatest attraction. In São Paulo, places like Brotas, Cordisburgo, São Luiz do Paraitinga, Santos, Ilhabela, Ubatuba, State Park of Serra do Mar, PETAR - Upper Ribeira Tourist State Park and Taubaté are good attractions for offering varied leisure options. In the State of Rio de Janeiro, the scenery is not different from the other states of the Region. Innumerous options of tours are offered in all the state. At the seaside, the most visited cities are Parati, Arraial do Cabo, Armação de Búzios and Angra dos Reis, which are the tourists' favorites. Other interesting places include Casimiro de Abreu, Itatiaia National Park, Tijuca National Park, Petrópolis and Teresópolis. At the mountain ranges in the interior or in the blue sea of its coast, the Southeast Region is impressive for its natural beauties, combined with the culture, history and sophistication. Useful Links Government Sites Brazilian Government: www.brasil.gov.br Ministry of Foreign Affairs: www.mre.gov.br Ministry for Tourism/Embratur: www.braziltour.com Main Newspapers O Globo: www.oglobo.globo.com Folha de São Paulo: www.folha.uol.com.br Interesting Sites InfoBrazil: www.infobrazil.com Brazilian News Site in English

Costa Rica Capital (and largest city): San José Location: 9°56′N 84°5′W Official language: Spanish Government: Democratic republic Independence from Spain (via Mexico): September 15, 1821 -from the UPCA: 1838 Area: 129th in the World Total: 51,100 km² (19,725 sq mi) Water (%): 0.7 Population: 2005 estimate 4,327,000 (119th) Density: 85 /km² (220 /sq mi) (107th) GDP (PPP) : 2006 estimate -Total: $48.77 billion (84th) -Per capita: $12,000 (82nd HDI (2004) : (2004) 0.841 (high) (48th) Currency: Costa Rican colón (CRC) Time zone: UTC-6 Calling code: .cr Internet TLD: +506 Member of: UN, OAS, WTO, FLAR About Costa Rica Costa Rica (literally "Rich Coast"), officially the Republic of Costa Rica (Spanish: Costa Rica or República de Costa Rica), is a country in Central America, bordered by Nicaragua to the north, Panama to the south-southeast, the Pacific Ocean to the west and south, and the Caribbean Sea to the east. Costa Rica was the first country in the world to constitutionally abolish its army. It is also the only country in which both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans can be seen from the same point. History In Pre-Columbian times the Indigenous people, in what is now known as Costa Rica, were part of the Intermediate Area located between the Mesoamerican and Andean cultural regions. This has recently been updated to include the influence of the Isthmo-Colombian area. It was the point where the Mesoamerican and South American native cultures met. The northwest of the country, the Nicoya Peninsula, was the southernmost point of Nahuatl cultural influence when the Spanish invaders (conquistadores) came in the sixteenth century. The center and southern portions of the country had Chibcha influences. However, the indigenous people have influenced modern Costa Rican culture to a relatively small degree, as most of the Indians died from disease and mistreatment by the Spaniards. Costa Rica was populated with African slaves in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, although most Caribbean Costa Ricans of African ascent descend from Jamaican workers brought in during the nineteenth century to work in the construction of railways connecting the urban populations of the Central Plateau to the port of Limon on the Caribbean coast. During the nineteenth century, Italian and Chinese immigrants came to the country to work on the construction of the railroad system as well, but unlike the slaves, these newcomers did so for monetary gain and skills acquirement. Geography of Costa Rica Costa Rica is located on the Central American isthmus, 10° North of the equator and 84° West of the Prime Meridian. It borders both the Caribbean Sea (to the east) and the North Pacific Ocean (to the west), with a total of 1,290 kilometres (802 mi) of coastline (212 km / 132 mi on the Caribbean coast and 1,016 km / 631 mi on the Pacific). It is about the size of West Virginia. Costa Rica also borders Nicaragua to the north (309 km / 192 mi of border) and Panama to the south-southeast (639 km / 397 mi of border). In total, Costa Rica comprises 51,100 square kilometers (19,730 sq. mi) plus 589.000 square kilometers of territorial waters. The highest point in the country is Cerro Chirripó, with 3,810 metres (12,500 ft), and is the fifth highest peak in Central America. The highest volcano in the country is the Irazú Volcano (3,431 m / 11,257 ft). The largest lake in Costa Rica is Lake Arenal. Costa Rica also comprises several islands. Cocos Island stands out because of its distance from continental landmass (24 km² / 9.25 sq mi, 500 km or 300 mi from Puntarenas coast), but Calero Island is the biggest island of the country (151.6 km² / 58.5 sq mi). Costa Rica protects over 25% of its national territory within national parks. It also possesses the greatest density of species in the world. Politics of Costa Rica Costa Rica is a democratic republic with a strong constitution. Although there are claims that the country has had more than 115 years of uninterrupted democracy, their presidential election history shows otherwise (see List of Presidents of Costa Rica). Nonetheless, the country has had at least fifty-nine years of uninterrupted democracy, which is by far the longest in Latin America. It is one of the most stable countries in Latin America. Costa Rica has avoided the violence that has plagued Central America; it is seen as an example of political stability in the region. Executive responsibilities are vested in a president, who is the country's center of power. There also are two vice presidents as well as a cabinet designated by the president. The president, vice presidents, and fifty-seven Legislative Assembly delegates are elected for four-year terms. A constitutional amendment approved in 1969 limited presidents and delegates to one term, although delegates were allowed to run again for an Assembly seat after sitting out a term. In April 2003, the constitutional ban on presidential re-election was reversed, allowing Óscar Arias (Nobel Peace Prize laureate, 1987) to run for President for a second term. In 2006, Óscar Arias was re-elected in tight and highly contested elections, running on a platform of promoting free trade. He took office on May 8, 2006. On June 16, 2006, he met Pope Benedict XVI at the Vatican. The seven provinces are divided into 81 corners ("cantón" in Spanish, plural "cantones"), each directed by a mayor. Mayors are chosen democratically every four years by each corner's people. There are no provincial legislatures. Autonomous state agencies enjoy considerable operational independence; they include the telecommunications and electrical power monopoly, the nationalized commercial banks, the state insurance monopoly, and the social security agency. Costa Rica has no military by constitution but maintains domestic police forces for internal security. Administrative divisions Provinces of Costa Rica Costa Rica is divided into seven provinces: 1. San José Political, technological and economical center of Costa Rica. 2. Alajuela Central and north of capital San José; agriculture and industrial manufacturing. 3. Cartago Former colonial capital. 4. Heredia Central and north of capital; industrial manufacturing. 5. Guanacaste North-west; important tourist and agricultural area. 6. Puntarenas Reaches along most of Costa Rica's Pacific coast. 7. Limón On Caribbean coast; agricultural and eco-tourism area. Economy of Costa Rica In recent times electronics, pharmaceuticals, financial outsourcing, software development and ecotourism, have become the prime industries in Costa Rica's economy. High levels of education among its residents make the country an attractive investing location. The economy has been expanding for Costa Rica in part because the Government had implemented a seven-year plan of expansion in the high tech industry. The central government offers tax exemptions for those who are willing to invest in the country. Several global high tech corporations have already started developing in the area exporting goods including chip manufacturer Intel, pharmaceutical company Glaxo Smith Kline, and consumer products company Procter & Gamble. Trade with South East Asia and Russia has boomed during 2004 and 2005, and the country is expected to obtain full Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Forum (APEC) membership by 2007 (the country became an observer in 2004). For the fiscal year 2005, the country showed a government deficit of 2.1%, internal revenue increased an 18%, exports increased a 12.8% and the number of visiting tourists increased a 19%, reaching 1.5 million people. Revised economic figures released by the Central Bank indicate that economic growth stood at 5%, nevertheless the country faced high inflation (14%) and a trade deficit of 5.2%. For 2006 the economy is expected to grow a 6.8%. The unit of currency is the colón (CRC), which trades around 518 to the U.S. dollar; currently about 675 to the euro. On October 16, 2006, a new currency exchange system was introduced, allowing the value of the CRC colón to float between two bands as done previously by Chile. The idea is that by doing so the Central Bank will be able to better tackle inflation and discourage the use of US dollars. Since that time, the value of the colon against the dollar has stabilized. Costa Rica's location provides easy access to American markets as it has the same time zone as the central part of the United States and direct ocean access to Europe and Asia. Foreign affairs Costa Rica is an active member of the United Nations and the Organization of American States. Costa Rica is seat of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights and seat of the United Nations University of Peace and many other international organizations related to human rights and democracy. Costa Rica's main foreign policy objective is to foster human rights and sustainable development as a way to secure stability and growth. Costa Rica is also a member of the International Criminal Court, without a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the US-military (as covered under Article 98). Flora and fauna of Costa Rica Costa Rica is home to a rich variety of plants and animals. While the country has only about 0.1% of the world's landmass, it contains 5% of the world's biodiversity. Over 25% of Costa Rica is composed of protected forests and reserves. One national park that is internationally-renowned among ecologists for its biodiversity (including big cats and tapirs) and where visitors can expect to see an abundance of wildlife is the Corcovado National Park. Tortuguero National Park – the name Tortuguero can be translated as "Full of turtles" – is home to spider, howler and white-throated Capuchin monkeys, the three-toed sloth, 320 species of birds (including eight species of parrots), a variety of reptiles, but is mostly recognized for the annual nesting of the endangered green turtle and is considered the most important nesting site for this species. Giant leatherback, hawksbill, and loggerhead turtles also nest here. The Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve hosts two thousand plant species, including numerous orchids. Over four hundred types of birds can be found here, and over one hundred species of mammals. As a whole, around eight hundred species of birds have been identified in Costa Rica. The Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad (INBIO) is allowed to collect royalties on any biological discoveries of medical importance. Demographics of Costa Rica In 2005, Costa Rica had an estimated population of 4.43 million people. The majority of people in Costa Rica are descended from Spanish settlers. In contrast to its neighboring countries' populations, little mixing of the Spanish settlers and the indigenous populations occurred. Therefore, a vast majority of Costa Ricans are either of Spanish or to a lesser extent of mixed mestizo heritage. In addition, there are significant numbers of Costa Ricans of Italian, German, Jewish, and Polish descent. Together, European and Mestizos descendants make up a full 94% of the population. Just under 3% of the population is of black African descent who are called Afro-Costa Ricans and are English-speaking descendants of nineteenth century black Jamaican immigrant workers. Another 1% is composed of ethnic Chinese. As of today, the indigenous population numbers around 1.7%, or around 50,000 individuals. In Guanacaste Province, a significant portion of the population descends from a mix of local Amerindians, Africans and Spaniards. There is also an expatriate community of people of all ages from the United States, Canada, Germany, Netherlands, Britain, and other countries. There are also many Nicaraguan workers. Christianity is a major religion in Costa Rica. Some 92% of Costa Ricans are Christian and like many other parts of Latin America, Protestant denominations have been experiencing rapid growth. However, three in four Costa Ricans still adhere to Roman Catholicism. Due to small but recent immigration from Asia, the Middle East, and other places, other religions have grown, the most popular being Buddhism (due to an increasing Chinese community of 40,000), and smaller numbers of Jewish, Muslim, and Hindu adherents. Culture of Costa Rica Costa Ricans often refer to themselves as tico (masculine) or tica (feminine). "Tico" comes from the popular local usage of "tico" and "tica" as diminutive suffixes (e.g., "momentico" instead of "momentito"). The tico ideal is that of a very friendly, helpful, laid back, unhurried, educated and environmentally aware people. Visitors from the United States are often referred to as gringos, which is virtually always congenial in nature. The phrase "Pura Vida" (literally "Pure Life") is a ubiquitous motto in Costa Rica. It encapsulates the pervading ideology of living in peace in a calm, unclustered manner, appreciating a life surrounded by nature and family and friends. Some might use maje or mae (maje means "dumb") to refer to each other, although this might be perceived as slightly insulting to those of an older generation. Costa Rican traditions and culture tend to retain a strong degree of Spanish influence. Their spoken accent is rather different than its Central American counterparts. "-ito" or "-ita" are added to many words to make them sound more polite and courteous. Costa Rica boasts a varied history. Costa Rica was the point where the Mesoamerican and South American native cultures met. The northwest of the country, the Nicoya peninsula, was the southernmost point of Nahuatl cultural influence when the Spanish conquerors (conquistadores) came in the sixteenth century. The center and southern portions of the country had Chibcha influences. However, the indigenous people have influenced modern Costa Rican culture to a relatively small degree, as most of the Indians died from disease and mistreatment by the Spaniards. The Atlantic coast, meanwhile, was populated with African slaves during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Most Caribbean Costa Ricans of African descent, however, derive from nineteenth-century Jamaican workers, brought in to work on the construction of railroads between the urban populations of the Central Plateau and the port of Limon on the Caribbean coast. Italian and Chinese immigrants also arrived at this time to work on the railroad construction. Education in Costa Rica The literacy rate in Costa Rica is of 96%, one of the highest in Latin America. Elementary and high schools are found throughout the country in practically every community. Universal public education is guaranteed in the Constitution. Primary education is obligatory, and both preschool and high school are free. There are both state and private universities. Tourism in Costa Rica by Regions North Caribbean North Caribbean comprises the caribbean coast and goes from the San Juan River to Limón city. Limón city is the touristic center of this Corridor, simultaneously working as an accommodation, stop over, distribution and touring center. Green turtle nesting on Tortuguero National Park and bass, shad and other species sport fishing at Barra del Colorado National Wild Life Refugee are the main tourist attractions of the region. It is also features a river channel system, which connects Moin Port with Barra del Colorado, and has become a singular attraction and the only way of transportation. Nature-based products get tax benefits, specially fauna observation, therefore is a world-known site for bird and turtle’s watching. South Caribbean This unit goes from Limon to the Panama border, Limon is the primary tourist center as well as an scaling and distribution center. The region has a unique combination of beaches, natural resources and Afro-American culture in Cahuíta, Puerto Viejo and Gandoca Manzanillo. The development of Limon is quite different from the rest of the Caribbean Island. High quality beaches allows adventure and natural history activities along with culture, gastronomy and music. Reefs, multicolor-sanded beaches (from black to yellow and gray), coastal vegetation and medium-high forest are the main attractions. Cahuíta National Park and Gandoca Manzanillo Reserve are worldwide recognized, not only because of their natural beauty but because they are becoming unique conservation places in almost the whole Caribbean. Central Valley The main entryway to the country, the Central Valley offers a variety of tourist, cultural and natural attractions, including Costa Rica’s best museums: the Gold, Jade, National, Costa Rican Art, La Salle Natural Science, University of Costa Rica Insect and Children’s Contemporary Art and Design Museums. In addition, this region is home to the architectural jewel of Costa Rica: the National Theater. All of these are located in the country’s capital. The national parks located in the Valley—Poás, Braulio Carrillo, Irazú and Turrialba—protect the region’s main volcanoes. All have road infrastructure so that visitors can enjoy birdwatching, natural landscapes, craters and forests. The country’s capital, San José, is the seat of most government services; however, the provincial capitals—Alajuela, Heredia and Cartago—offer a variety of quality commercial and tourism services. As a tourism zone, the Central Valley features two extraordinarily beautiful areas that in and of themselves are true tourist destinations: Turrialba and Valle de los Santos. The rural towns are very beautiful and offer a glimpse of old Costa Rica, with their houses of bahareque (a building material similar to adobe but made of cattle dung and straw), large coffee plantations, sugar mills and dairies. Northern Plains With its several protected areas, lakes, lagoons, volcanoes, rivers and waterfalls, the Northern Zone is undergoing a boom in tourism service and adventure site development, so that nature-loving visitors can enjoy the region’s many attractions. Due to frequent rains, the Northern Zone features wet and evergreen forests as well as fertile plains—natural environments that serve as sanctuaries for water birds, reptiles, mammals and the prehistoric Gaspar fish, and important sites of interest for wildlife-lovers. Adventure activities and nature-watching may be enjoyed on the rivers—Peñas Blancas, San Carlos, Toro, Puerto Viejo and Sarapiquí—some of which are important navigational routes. The Sarapiquí canton with its rich biodiversity, is recognized as a scientific research site and the last stronghold of endangered species such as the great green macaw. The region is famous for the turnos (outdoor parties or festivals) held in its towns, with bull riding and livestock auctions. Monteverde The Monteverde tourism zone is known around the world for its conservation efforts and lifestyle based on nature preservation. Santa Elena is the area’s main service center with various shops and tourism companies; other important towns are San Luis and San Gerardo. Though its main attraction is the Monteverde Biological Preserve, the region also features a variety of natural places, beautiful paths, flora- and fauna-watching opportunities, natural landscapes and more. The main activities are natural history and adventure; tourist activities include bird- (especially the resplendent quetzal), wildlife- and nature-watching, hiking, canopy tours, trips to suspension bridges and visits to butterfly and frog gardens. North Guanacaste North Guanacaste harbors an important portion of the Costa Rican cultural and natural legacy. There are many protected areas, including coastal, mountainous, terrestrial, and aquatic ecosystems, where life develops with exuberance. It is situated in the northern part of the country, and covers the pacific coast of Costa Rica, since the limit with Nicaragua to Punta Cerritos, located 22 km. west from de city of Santa Cruz. It covers an extension of approximately 100 km. of the Pacific Coast. Currently the incomparable beauty of its landscapes, that range from the tropical dry forest to the forest montano low and its hot climate, as well as its fertile nature, turn Guanacaste into one of the most concurred places by the local and international tourism. Many flights arrive charter and regular flights from the United States. North Guanacaste has two main tourist centers that are Liberia (central of stopover distribution, scale and excursion) and Santa Cruz, and three other tourist centers: El Coco, Tamarindo and Flamingo. The landscape in the coast is exceptional. There are beaches of white sands and a peaceful sea qualified by intense blue, especially the ones located inside Papagayo Gulf (Nacascolo, Virador, Iguanita and Panama). It is one of the more developed regions. South Guanacaste It includes the southwest coast of the Nicoya Peninsula. Its north limit is the Punta Cerritos and its south with river Bongo outfall, with a length of approximately 110 kilometers in front of the coast. The main tourist center of the South Guanacaste Unit is the Nicoya city, located at 30 kilometers of the coast that works as a distribution center and stop break for the tourist that travels to the south Guanacaste beaches and the travelers to other passages. The second tourist center is the village of Sámara, located over the coast. The main attraction is the beaches, natural resources such as the spectacular arriving of the turtles Lora in the Wild Life National Refuge Ostional and the estuary and mangrove swamp of the south side, specially those who divide the beaches of Islita, Bejuco, San Miguel, Coyote and Guiones. The mangrove swamp are excellent conserved and are ideal sites for the bird-watching as well as the practice of light sports as the “kayaking”. It has an efficient public transportation and well as ferryboats (Paquera community and Naranjo beach). Similarly, the bridge over the Tempisque River provides a quick access to the central and south region of the Peninsula. Puntarenas, beaches and Islands of the Gulf Puntarenas is one of the most important tourist regions of Costa Rica. Its has many islands, inlets, beaches and beautiful natural treasures, which makes Puntarenas a tourist destiny. Its territory offers a wide range of attractions such as beaches, reservations, continental and insular areas. This spectacular area very close to the Central Valley, a two-hours drive, 120 kilometers away from the capital. Puntarenas City is its main destination. Other tourist centers are Tambor, and Cóbano. Cabo Blanco Absolute Nature Preserve, and San Lucas, Chira, Tortuga and Coco’s Islands stand out. This region of the country stretches from the city of Puntarenas to the mouth of the Río Barú in the area known as Dominical de Osa. There are three interesting cities well developed for tourism: Quepos, Jacó and Puntarenas. The region also includes the islands in the Gulf of Nicoya. A wet and rainy climate allows greater biodiversity in the beaches and hills next to the coast; there is a transition from tropical wet forest to tropical forest to tropical dry forest. These ecosystems provide habitat for numerous plant and animal species that are protected in several wilderness areas. Isla del Coco, almost 600 kilometers from the port of Puntarenas is under this province’s jurisdiction. Mid Pacific The main attractions in the Mid Pacific region are coast and protected wilderness areas. There are many beautiful beaches, less than two hours from San José. The region features wildlife refuges, national parks and biological preserves. Other important attractions are of cultural and recreational interest. South Pacific, Corcovado, Golfito The beautiful region includes the Fila Tinamastes attractions, such as the Cataratas of Nauyaca (waterfalls), Platanillo town and the Barú River. Whales and dolphins can be seen from the beach, and there are mangrove swamps, sport fishing, surfing, hiking in the National Park paths, professional diving, energetic walks to the summit of the Chirripo peak, botanical gardens, protected areas’ impressive waterfalls. Ecotourism is the main choice in the Humedal Sierpe-Térraba; the Golfo Dulce Forest Reserve, the Ballena Marine National Park, the Isla del Caño Biological Preserve and the Corcovado National Park. Additionally, there is a high potential in the rural tourism development, in peasant settlements distributed along the region. Two important protected areas are located in this zone, one is the Corcovado National Park, which National Geographic Magazine defines as “the planet’s biologically richest place” and the Humanity Biosphere Preserve, declared as Humanity Patrimony and part of the Amistad International Park. Useful Links Presidency of Costa Rica: www.casapres.go.cr Costarrican Tourism Institute: www.visitcostarica.com Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Costa Rica: www.casapres.go.cr Main Newspapers in Costa Rica La Gaceta: www.imprenal.go.cr La Nación: www.nacion.com The Tico Times: www.ticotimes.net English Language Newspaper

Panamá Capital (and largest city) : Panama City Location: 8°58′N, 79°32′W Official language: Spanish Government: Republic Independence: From Spain 28 November 1821. From Colombia 3 November 1903. Area: 118th in the World Total: 75,517 km² (29,157 sq mi) Water (%): 2.9 Population: December 2006 estimate 3,320,000 (133rd) Density: 43 /km² (111 /sq mi) (156th) GDP (PPP) : $23.495 billion (105th) Per capita $7,283 (83rd) HDI (2004) : 0.809 (high) (58th) Currency: Balboa, U.S. dollar (PAB, USD) Time zone: UTC-5 Calling code: +507 Internet TLD: .pa Member of: UN, OAS About Panama Panama, officially the Republic of Panama (Spanish: República de Panamá), is the southernmost country of Central America. Situated on an isthmus, Panama is a transcontinental nation which connects North America and South America. It borders Costa Rica to the northwest, Colombia to the southeast, the Caribbean Sea to the north and the Pacific Ocean to the south. History of Panama Much of Panama's domestic politics in the twentieth century was tied to the Panama Canal and the foreign policy of the United States. At the turn of the twentieth century, Theodore Roosevelt pursued United States diplomatic efforts to facilitate a deal with Colombia that would allow it to take over French canal operations started by Ferdinand de Lesseps. In November 1903, the United States supported a covert Separatist Junta consisting of a small number of wealthy Panamanian landowners and led by Dr. Manuel Amador Guerrero to secede from Colombia. On 3 November 1903, Panama declared its independence from Colombia. The President of the Municipal Council, Demetrio H. Brid, highest authority at the time, became its de facto President, appointing a Provisional Government on 4 November to run the affairs of the new republic. The United States, as the first country to recognize the new Republic of Panama, sent troops to protect its economic interests. The 1904 Constituent Assembly elected Dr. Manuel Amador Guerrero, a prominent member of the Conservative political party, as the first constitutional President of the Republic of Panama. In December 1903, representatives of the republic signed the Hay-Bunau Varilla Treaty which granted rights to the United States to build and administer indefinitely the Panama Canal, which was opened in 1914. This treaty became a contentious diplomatic issue between the two countries, reaching a boiling point on Martyr's Day (9 January 1964). The issues were resolved with the signing of the Torrijos-Carter Treaties in 1977. The original intent of the founding fathers was to bring harmony between the two major political parties (Conservatives and Liberals) . The Panamanian government went through periods of political instability and corruption, however, and at various times in its history, the mandate of an elected president terminated prematurely. In 1968, a coup toppled the government of the recently elected Arnulfo Arias Madrid. General Omar Torrijos eventually became the leading power in the governing military junta, and later became an autocratic strong man until his death in an apparent airplane accident in 1981. After Torrijos's death, power was eventually concentrated in the hands of General Manuel Antonio Noriega, a former head of Panama's secret police and an ex-member of the CIA. Noriega was implicated in drug trafficking by the United States, resulting in difficult relations by the end of the 1980s. On 20 December 1989, twenty-seven thousand US personnel invaded Panama in order to remove Noriega. A few hours after the invasion, in a ceremony that took place inside a U.S. military base in the former Panama Canal Zone, Guillermo Endara (winner of the May 1989 elections) was sworn in as the new president of Panama. The invasion occurred ten years before the Panama Canal administration was to be turned over to Panamanian control, according to the timetable set up by the Torrijos-Carter Treaties. After the invasion, Noriega sought asylum in the Vatican diplomatic mission represented by Monsignor Jose S. Laboa. After a few days, Noriega surrendered to the American military, and was taken to Florida to be formally extradited and charged by U.S. federal authorities. He is eligible for parole in September of 2007. Under the Torrijos-Carter Treaties, the United States returned all canal-related lands to Panama on 31 December 1999, but reserves the right to military intervention in the interest of its national security. Panama also gained control of canal-related buildings and infrastructure as well as full administration of the canal. The people of Panama have already approved the widening of the canal which, after completion, will allow for post-Panamax vessels to travel through it, increasing the number of ships that currently use the canal. Panama's politics takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Panama is both head of state and head of government, and of a pluriform multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the National Assembly. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Provinces and regions of Panama and List of cities in Panama Administratively, Panama's major divisions are nine provinces and five indigenous territories (comarcas indígenas). Provinces Bocas del Toro • Coclé • Colón • Chiriquí • Darién • Herrera • Los Santos • Panamá • Veraguas Provincial-level comarcas Emberá-Wounaan • Kuna Yala • Ngöbe-Buglé • Kuna de Madugandí • Kuna de Wargandí Geography of Panama Panama is located in Central America, bordering both the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean, between Colombia and Costa Rica. Its location on the eastern end of the Isthmus of Panama, a land bridge connecting North and South America, is strategic. By 1999, Panama controlled the Panama Canal that links the North Atlantic Ocean via the Caribbean Sea with the North Pacific Ocean. A nearly impenetrable jungle forms the Darien Gap between Panama and Colombia. It creates a break in the Pan-American Highway, which otherwise forms a complete road from Alaska to Patagonia. Economy of Panama Panama's economy is service-based, heavily weighted toward banking, commerce, and tourism, due to its key geographic location. The handover of the canal and military installations by the USA has given rise to new construction projects. The Martín Torrijos administration has undertaken controversial structural reforms, such as a fiscal reform and a very difficult Social Security Reform. Furthermore, a Referendum regarding the building of a third set of locks for the Panama Canal was approved overwhelmingly (though with low voter turnout) on 22 October 2006. The official estimate of the building of the third set of locks is US$5.25 billion. The Panamanian economy grew 8% in 2006 and for the first time in the last ten years the public sector closed the year 2006 with a trade surplus of USD 88 million. Furthermore the GDP nominal revised in 2006 reached USD 16,704 billion. The Panamanian currency is the balboa, fixed at parity with the United States dollar. In practice, however, the country is dollarized; Panama mints its own coinage but uses US dollars for all its paper currency. Panama is one of three countries in the region to have dollarized their economies, with the other two being Ecuador and El Salvador. Globalism The high levels of Panamanian trade are in large part due to the Colón Free Trade Zone, the largest free trade zone in the Western Hemisphere. Last year the zone accounted for 92 percent of Panama's exports and 65 percent of its imports, according to an analysis of figures from the Colon zone management and estimates of Panama's trade by the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC). Panama fared decently in tourism receipts and foreign direct investment as a percent of GDP (the fourth-highest in Latin America in both categories) and internet penetration (eighth-highest rate in Latin America). Inflation According to the Economic Commision for Latin American and the Caribbean (ECLAC, or CEPAL by its more-commonly used Spanish acronym), Panama's inflation as measured by CPI was 2.0 percent in 2006. Panama has traditionally experienced low inflation. Real estate Panama City has seen a race between two rival projects aimed at becoming the tallest building in Latin America. But one of the two projects was cancelled. The other project, a 104-story residential and hotel building named Ice Tower, is slated to be completed in 2010. The Palacio de la Bahia project has been cancelled by the Spanish promoter Olloqui. The two projects were originally smaller, but subsequently started adding floors to obtain status as the tallest building in the region. There are more than 105 projects in Panama City where neighborhoods are experiencing a huge increase in the number of buildings. In San Francisco there are currently 25 new buildings being built. Grupo Mall, another Spanish developer, is building a multitower apartment complex, hotel, and commercial mall. The project is scheduled for partial completion in 2009. Apart from the existing demand, future developments will also be helped by such factors as the planned expansion of the Panama Canal, a possible refinery by U.S. oil giant Occidental Petroleum and a new container port near the Pacific entrance of the canal. Demographics of Panama The culture, customs, and language of the Panamanians are predominantly Caribbean and Spanish. Ethnically, the majority of the population is mestizo or mixed Amerindian, African, Spanish and Chinese descent. Spanish is the official and dominant language; English is also recognized as an official language and is spoken widely on the Caribbean coast and by many in business and professional fields. More than half the population lives in the Panama City–Colón metropolitan corridor. The overwhelming majority of Panamanians are Roman Catholic, accounting for almost 80% of the population. Although the Constitution recognises Catholicism as the religion of the great majority, Panama has no official religion. Minority religions in Panama include Protestantism (12%), Islam (4.4%), the Bahá'í Faith (1.2%), Buddhism (at least 1%), Greek Orthodox (0.1%),Judaism (0.4%), and Hinduism (0.3%). The Jewish community in Panama, with over 10,000 members, is by far the biggest in the region (including Central America, Colombia and the Caribbean). Jewish immigration began in the late 19th century, and at present there are synagogues in Panama City, as well as two Jewish schools. Within Latin America, Panama has one of the largest Jewish communities in proportion to its population, surpassed only by Uruguay and Argentina. Panama's communities of Muslims, East Asians, and South Asians, are also among the largest. Panama City hosts a Bahá'í House of Worship, one of only eight in the world. Completed in 1972, it is perched on a high hill facing the canal, and is constructed of local mud laid in a pattern reminiscent of Native American fabric designs. Panama, because of its historical reliance on commerce, is above all a melting pot. This is shown, for instance, by its considerable population of Chinese origin (see Panama section in Chinatowns in Latin America). Many Chinese immigrated to Panama to help build the Panama Railroad. A term for "corner store" in Panamanian Spanish is “The Little Chineee”, reflecting the fact that many corner stores are owned and run by Chinese immigrants. (Other countries have similar social patterns, for instance, the "Arab" corner stores of France.) There are seven indigenous peoples in Panama: * Emberá * Wounaan * Ngöbe * Buglé * Kuna * Nazo * Bribri The country is also the smallest in Spanish-speaking Latin America in terms of population (est. 3,232,000), with Uruguay as the second smallest (est. 3,463,000). However, since Panama has a higher birth rate, it is likely that in the coming years its population will surpass Uruguay's. Tourism Panama City The capital of Panama, Panama City, is enriched with enchanting restaurants, fantastic nightclubs and magnificent shopping. In case you prefer something a little more historic, the old side of the city is close by for an exploring adventure. Panama Canal Often referred to as the ninth wonder of the world, the Panama Canal extends across Panama from the Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic Ocean. Visit and find out why some say it’s the greatest engineering achievement for human kind. San Blas Islands Featuring a coastline of 200 miles, these islands offer crystal clear waters and beautiful secluded islets. The Kuna Indians of Panama call these islands home and live the same today as they did hundreds of years ago. Chiriqui Habitats of quetzals, parrots and numerous other bird species make this province a birdwatcher’s paradise. Cloud and rain forests, mountains and beaches are among the other visual delights to visit. Darien Tropical flora, fauna and 1.5 million acres of pure rainforest provide the native Chocoe Indians with an immense jungle. Useful Links Government Sites Presidency of Panama: www.presidencia.gob.pa Ministry of External Relations of Panama (Spanish): www.mire.gob.pa Official Site of the Panama Tourism Bureau: www.visitpanama.com National Directorate of Immigration and Naturalization of Panama : www.migracion.gob.pa Main Newspapers in Panama The Panama News: www.migracion.gob.pa Día a Día: www.diaadia.com.pa La Crítica: www.critica.com.pa

Mexico Capital (and largest city): Mexico City Location: 19°03′N, 99°22′W Official language: None at federal level Spanish (de facto) Government: Presidential Federal Republic Independence from Spain: Declared September 16, 1810. Recognized September 27, 1821 Area: 15th in the World Total: 1,972,550 km² (758,249 sq mi) Water (%): 2.5 Population: 2006 estimate 107,449,525 (11th) Density: 55 /km² (142nd) 142 /sq mi GDP (PPP) : $1.191 trillion (13th) Per capita $10,186 (64th) HDI (2004) : 0.821 (high) (53rd) Gini?: (2002) 49.5 (high) Currency: Peso (MXN) Time zone: UTC-6 to UTC-8, in summer UTC-5 to UTC-7 Calling code: +52 Internet TLD: .mx Member of: TLCAN, UN, OAS, OCDE, APEC, G.3 About Mexico The United Mexican States (Spanish: Estados Unidos Mexicanos), or simply Mexico (Spanish: México), is a country located in North America, bounded on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the North Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of Mexico. The United Mexican States comprise a constitutional republican federation of thirty-one states and a federal district, Mexico City, one of the most populous cities on Earth. Covering almost 2 million square kilometers, Mexico is the 5th largest country in the Americas by total area and 14th largest in the world. With a population of about 103 million, it is the 11th most populous country and the most populous Spanish-speaking country in the world. As the only Latin American member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) since 1994, Mexico is firmly established as an upper middle-income country. Elections held in July 2000 marked the first time that an opposition party won the presidency to the Institutional Revolutionary Party (Partido Revolucionario Institucional: PRI), that held it since 1929, culminating a process of political alternation that had begun at the local level since the 1980s. Etymology of Mexico After the independence of the vice-royalty of New Spain it was decided that the country was to be named after its capital city, whose original name of foundation was Mexico-Tenochtitlan, in reference to the name of the Nahua Aztec tribe, the Mexica. The Nahuatl word Mexiko or Mexihko is composed of the root Mexi and the suffix -co that means place or city. The origin of the name of the tribe is rather obscure. Some argue that it derives from the Nahuatl word Mexitl a secret name for the god of war and patron of the Mexica, Huitzilopochtli, in which case Mexico means "place where Mexitl lives". Another hypothesis suggests that it derives from the words metztli ("moon"), xictli ("navel", "center" or "son"), and the suffix -co ("place"), thus it means "Place at the center of the moon" or "Place at the center of the Lake Moon", in reference to Lake Texcoco at the middle of which Mexico City was built. History of Mexico For almost three thousand years, Mesoamerica was the site of several advanced Amerindian civilizations such as the Olmec, the Maya and the Aztecs. In 1519, the native civilizations of what now is known as Mexico were invaded by Spain; this was one of the most important conquest campaigns in America. Two years later in 1521, the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan was conquered by an alliance between Spanish and Tlaxcaltecs, the main enemies of the Aztecs, setting up a three-century colonial rule in Mexico. The viceroyalty of New Spain became the first and largest provider of resources for the Spanish Empire, and the most populated of all Spanish colonies. On September 16, 1810, independence from Spain was declared by Miguel Hidalgo in the small town of Dolores, Hidalgo state, causing a long war that eventually led to recognized independence in 1821 and the creation of an ephemeral First Mexican Empire with Agustín de Iturbide as first and only emperor, deposed in 1823 by the republican forces. In 1824, a republican constitution was drafted creating the United Mexican States with Guadalupe Victoria as its first President. The first four decades of independent Mexico were marked by a constant strife between federalists (those who supported the federal form of government stipulated in the 1824 constitution) and centralists (who proposed a hierarchical form of government in which all local authorities were appointed and subject to a central authority). General Antonio López de Santa Anna was a strong influence in Mexican politics, a centralist and a two-time dictator. In 1836, he approved the Siete Leyes, a radical amendment to the constitution that institutionalized the centralized form of government, after which Texas declared independence from Mexico, obtained in 1836. The annexation of Texas by the United States created a border dispute that would cause the Mexican-American War. Santa Anna played a big role in trying to muster Mexican forces but this war resulted in the resolute defeat of Mexico and as a result of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848), Mexico lost one third of its surface area to the United States. Dissatisfaction with Santa Anna's return to power, and his unconstitutional rule, led to the liberal Revolution of Ayutla, which initiated an era of liberal reforms, known as La Reforma, after which a new constitution was drafted that reestablished federalism as the form of government and first introduced freedom of religion. In the 1860s the country again underwent a military occupation, this time by France, which established the Habsburg Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian of Austria on the Mexican throne as Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico with support from the Catholic clergy and the conservative Mexicans. This Second Mexican Empire was victorious for only a few years, when the previous president of the Republic, the Zapotec Indian Benito Juárez, managed to restore the republic in 1867. Porfirio Díaz, a republican general during the French intervention, ruled Mexico from 1876-1880 and then from 1880-1911 in five consecutive reelections. The period of his rule is known as the Porfiriato, which was characterized by remarkable economic achievements, investments in art and sciences, but also of huge economic inequality and political repression. An obvious and preposterous electoral fraud that led to his fifth reelection sparked the Mexican Revolution of 1910, initially led by Francisco I. Madero. Díaz resigned in 1911 and Madero was elected president but overthrown and murdered in a coup d'état in 1913 led by a conservative general named Victoriano Huerta after a secret council held with the American ambassador Henry Lane Wilson. This re-ignited the civil war, with participants such as Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata who formed their own forces. A third force, the constitutional army led by Venustiano Carranza, managed to bring an end to the war, and radically amended the 1857 Constitution to include many of the social premises and demands of the revolutionaries into what was eventually called the 1917 Constitution. Carranza was killed in 1920 and succeeded by another revolutionary hero, Álvaro Obregón, who in turn was succeeded by Plutarco Elías Calles. Obregón was reelected in 1928 but assassinated before he could assume power. Shortly after, Calles founded the National Revolutionary Party (PNR), later renamed the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) who became the most influential party during the next 70 years. During the next four decades, Mexico experienced substantial economic growth that historians call "El Milagro Mexicano", the Mexican Miracle. The assumption of mineral rights by the government, and the subsequent nationalization of the oil industry into PEMEX during the presidency of Lázaro Cárdenas del Río (1938) was a popular move, but sparked a diplomatic crisis with those countries whose citizens had lost businesses expropriated by the Cárdenas government. Although the economy continued to flourish, social inequality remained a factor of discontent. Moreover, the PRI rule became increasingly authoritarian and at times oppressive, an example being the Tlatelolco Massacre of 1968, which by according to government officials claimed the life of around 30 protesters, even though many reputable international accounts reported that around 250 protesters were killed by security forces in a clash at the neighborhood. In the 1970s there was extreme dissatisfaction with the administration of Luis Echeverría which took missteps in both the national and international arenas. Nonetheless, it was in this decade that the first substantial changes to electoral law were made, which initiated a movement of democratization of a system that had become electorally authoritarian. While the prices of oil were at historically high records and interest rates were low, Mexico made impressive investments in the state-owned oil company, with the intention of revitalizing the economy, but overborrowing and mismanagement of oil revenues led to inflation and exacerbated the crisis of 1982. That year, oil prices plunged, interest rates soared, and the government defaulted on its debt. In an attempt to stabilize the current account balance, and given the reluctance of international lenders to return to Mexico given the previous default, president de la Madrid resorted to currency devaluations which in turn sparked inflation. The first small cracks in the political monopolistic position of PRI were seen in the late 1970s with the creation of 100 deputy seats in the Chamber of Deputies assigned through proportional representation with open party-lists. Even though at the municipal level the first non-PRI mayor was elected in 1947, it was not until 1989 that the first non-PRI governor of a state was elected. However, many sources claimed that in 1988 the party resorted to electoral fraud in order to prevent leftist opposition candidate Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas from winning the national presidential elections who lost to Carlos Salinas, which led to massive protests in the capital. Salinas embarked on a program of neoliberal reforms which fixed the exchanged rate, controlled inflation and culminated with the signing of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) , which came into effect in 1994. However, that very same day, the Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN) started a short-lived armed rebellion against the federal government, and has continued as a non-violent opposition movement against neoliberalism and globalization. This and a series of political assassinations and corruption scandals scared portfolio investors and reduced foreign capital investment. Being an election year, in a process that was then called the most transparent in Mexican history, authorities were reluctant to devalue the peso, a move which caused a rapid depletion of the National Reserves. In December 1994, a month after Salinas was succeeded by Ernesto Zedillo, the Mexican economy collapsed. With a rapid rescue package authorized by American president Clinton and major macroeconomic reforms started by president Zedillo, the economy rapidly recovered and growth peaked at almost 7% in 1999. Democratic reforms under Zedillo's administration caused the PRI to lose its absolute majority in the Congress in 1997. In 2000, after 71 years the PRI lost a presidential election to Vicente Fox of the opposition National Action Party (PAN). On March 23, 2005, the Security and Prosperity Partnership of North America was signed by Vicente Fox. During the 2006 elections, the PRI was further weakened and became the third political force in number of seats in the Chamber of Deputies after PAN and the Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD). In the concurrent presidential elections, Felipe Calderón, from PAN was declared winner, with a razor-thin margin over Andrés Manuel López Obrador of the Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD). Geography of Mexico Mexico is situated in the mid-latitudes of the Americas. Its territory comprises much of southern North America, or also within Middle America. Physiographically, the lands east of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec including the Yucatán Peninsula (which together comprise around 12% of the country's area) lie within the region of Central America; geologically, the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt delimits the region on the north. Geopolitically, however, Mexico is commonly not considered a Central American country. Mexico's total area is 1,972,550 km², including approximately 6,000 km² of islands in the Pacific Ocean (including the remote Guadalupe Island and the Islas Revillagigedo), Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea, and Gulf of California. On its north, Mexico shares a 3,141 km border with the United States. The meandering Río Bravo del Norte (known as the Rio Grande in the United States) defines the border from Ciudad Juárez east to the Gulf of Mexico. A series of natural and artificial markers delineate the United States-Mexican border west from Ciudad Juárez to the Pacific Ocean. On its south, Mexico shares an 871 km border with Guatemala and a 251 km border with Belize. Topography of Mexico The Mexican territory is crossed from north to south by two mountain ranges known as Sierra Madre Oriental and Sierra Madre Occidental, which are the extension of the Rocky Mountains from northern North America. From east to west at the center, the country is crossed by the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt also known as the Sierra Nevada. A fourth mountain range, the Sierra Madre del Sur, runs from Michoacán to Oaxaca. As such, the majority of the Mexican central and northern territories are located at high altitudes, and the highest elevations are found at the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt: Pico de Orizaba (5,700 m), Popocatépetl (5,462 m) and Iztaccíhuatl (5,286 m) and the Nevado de Toluca (4,577 m). Three major urban agglomerations are located in the valleys between these four elevations: Toluca, Greater Mexico City and Puebla. Climate The Tropic of Cancer effectively divides the country into temperate and tropical zones. Land north of the twenty-fourth parallel experiences cooler temperatures during the winter months. South of the twenty-fourth parallel, temperatures are fairly constant year round and vary solely as a function of elevation. Areas south of the twentieth-fourth parallel with elevations up to 1,000 meters (the southern parts of both coastal plains as well as the Yucatán Peninsula), have a yearly median temperature between 24°C and 28°C. Temperatures here remain high throughout the year, with only a 5°C difference between winter and summer median temperatures. Although low-lying areas north of the twentieth-fourth parallel are hot and humid during the summer, they generally have lower yearly temperature averages (from 20°C to 24°C) because of more moderate conditions during the winter. Many large cities in Mexico are located in the Valley of Mexico or in adjacent valleys with altitudes generally above 2,000m, this gives them a year-round temperate climate with yearly temperature averages (from 16°C to 18°C) and cool nighttime temperatures throughout the year. Many parts of Mexico, particularly the north have a dry climate with sporadic rainfall while parts of the tropical lowlands in the south average more than 200cm of annual precipitation. Biodiversity Mexico is one of the 17 megadiverse countries of the world. With over 200,000 different species, Mexico is home of 10-12% of the world's biodiversity. Mexico ranks first in biodiversity in reptiles with 707 known species, second in mammals with 438 species, fourth in amphibians with 290 species, and fourth in flora, with 26,000 different species. Mexico is also considered the second country in the world in ecosystems and fourth in overall species. Approximately 2,500 species are protected by Mexican legislations. The Mexican government created the National System of Information about Biodiversity, in order to study and promote the sustainable use of ecosystems. In Mexico, 17 million hectares are considered "Protected Natural Areas" which include 34 reserve biospheres (unaltered ecosystems), 64 national parks, 4 natural monuments (protection for its aesthetic, scientific or historical value in perpetuity), 26 areas of protected flora and fauna, 4 areas for natural resource protection (conservation of soil, hydrological basins and forests) and 17 sanctuaries (zones of abundant richness in species). Politics of Mexico Political configuration The United Mexican States are a federation whose government is representative, democratic and republican based on a congressional system according to the 1917 Constitution. The constitution establishes three levels of government: the federal Union, the state governments and the municipal governments. All officials at the three levels are elected by voters through first-past-the-post plurality, proportional representation or are appointed by other elected officials. The federal government is constituted by the Powers of the Union, the three separate branches of government: *Legislative: the bicameral Congress of the Union, comprised of a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies, which makes federal law, declares war, imposes taxes, approves the national budget and international treaties, and ratifies diplomatic appointments. * Executive: the President of the United Mexican States, who is the head of state and government, as well as the commander in chief of the Mexican military forces. The President also appoints, with Senate approval, the Cabinet and other officers. The President is responsible of executing and enforcing the law, and has the authority of vetoing bills. * Judiciary: The Supreme Court of Justice, comprised by eleven judges appointed by the President with Senate approval, who interpret laws and judge cases of federal competency. Other institutions of the judiciary are the Electoral Tribunal, collegiate, unitary and district tribunals, and the Council of the Federal Judiciary. All elected executive officials are elected by plurality (first-past-the-post). Seats to the legislature are elected by plurality and proportional representation at the federal and state level. The Chamber of Deputies of the Congress of the Union is conformed by 300 deputies elected through plurality and 200 deputies by proportional representation with open-party lists for which the country is divided into 5 electoral constituencies or circumscriptions. The Senate is conformed by 64 senators, two per state and the Federal District, jointly elected by plurality, 32 senators assigned to the first minority (one per state and the Federal District) and 32 elected by proportional representation with open-party lists of which the country conforms a single electoral constituency. According to the constitution, all constituent states must have a republican form of government comprised of three branches: the executive, represented by a governor and an appointed cabinet, the legislative branch constituted by a unicameral congress and the judiciary, also called a Supreme Court of Justice. In the 2006-2009 Congress eight parties are therein represented; five of them, however, have not received neither in this nor in previous congresses more than 4% of the national votes. The other three parties have historically been the dominant parties in Mexican politics: * National Action Party (Partido Acción Nacional, PAN): a center-right conservative party founded in 1939 * Institutional Revolutionary Party (Partido Revolucionario Institucional, PRI): a center-left party that ascribes to social democracy, founded in 1929 to unite all the factions of the Mexican Revolution * Party of the Democratic Revolution (Partido de la Revolución Democrática, PRD): a center-left party founded in 1989 formed by the coalition of socialists and liberal parties, the National Democratic Front under the candidacy of Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas. The PRI held an almost hegemonic power in Mexican politics since 1929. Since 1977 consecutive electoral reforms allowed opposition parties to win posts at the local and federal level. This process culminated in the 2000 presidential elections in which Vicente Fox, candidate of the PAN, became the first non-PRI president to be elected. In 2006, Felipe Calderón of the PAN faced Andrés Manuel López Obrador of the PRD in a very close election (0.58% difference). Administrative divisions of Mexico State Pop. (2005) Sur. (km²) Capital City United Mexican States 103.088.000 1.959.248 Mexico City 1. Aguascalientes 1.065.416 5.625 Aguascalientes 2. Baja California 2.842.000 71.546 Mexicali 3. Baja California Sur 517.000 73.943 La Paz 4. Campeche 751.000 57.727 San Francisco de Campeche 5. Chiapas 4.256.000 73.681 Tuxtla Gutiérrez 6. Chihuahua 3.238.000 247.487 Chihuahua 7. Coahuila de Zaragoza 2.475.000 151.445 Saltillo 8. Colima 562.000 5.627 Colima 9. Durango 1.489.000 123.367 Victoria de Durango 10. Guanajuato 4.893.000 30.621 Guanajuato 11. Guerrero 3.116 000 63.618 Chilpancingo de los Bravo 12. Hidalgo 2.334.000 20.856 Pachuca de Soto 13. Jalisco 6.652.000 78.630 Guadalajara 14. México 14.161.000 22.333 Toluca de Lerdo 15. Michoacán de Ocampo 3.988.000 58.667 Morelia 16. Morelos 1.605.000 4.892 Cuernavaca 17. Nayarit 943.000 27.862 Tepic 18. Nuevo León 4.164.000 64.203 Monterrey 19. Oaxaca 3.522.000 93.343 Oaxaca de Juárez 20. Puebla 5.391.000 34.251 H. Puebla de Zaragoza 21. Querétaro Arteaga 1.593.000 11.658 Santiago de Querétaro 22. Quintana Roo 1.134.000 42.535 Chetumal 23. San Luis Potosí 2.412.000 61.165 San Luis Potosí 24. Sinaloa 2.610.000 57.331 Culiacán Rosales 25. Sonora 2.384.000 179.516 Hermosillo 26. Tabasco 2.013.000 24.747 Villahermosa 27. Tamaulipas 3.020.000 80.148 Ciudad Victoria 28. Tlaxcala 1.061.000 3.997 Tlaxcala de Xicohténcatl 29. Veracruz 7.081.000 71.856 Xalapa de Enríquez 30. Yucatán 1.803.000 39.671 Mérida 31. Zacatecas 1.357.000 75.416 Zacatecas 32. Distrito Federal 8.670.000 1.484 The United Mexican States are a union of thirty-one free and sovereign states that form a Union that exercises jurisdiction over the Federal District and other territories. Every state has its own constitution and congress, and its citizens elect by direct voting, a governor (gobernador) for a six-year term, as well as representatives (diputados locales) to their respective state congresses, for three-year terms. Mexican states are also divided into municipalities (municipios), the smallest official political entity in the country, governed by a mayor or "municipal president" (presidente municipal), elected by its residents by plurality. Constitutionally, Mexico City, as the capital of the federation and seat of the powers of the Union, is the Federal District, a special political division in Mexico that belongs to the federation as a whole and not to a particular state, and as such, has more limited local rule than the nation's states. Nonetheless, since 1987 it has progressively gained a greater degree of autonomy, and residents now elect a head of government (Jefe de Gobierno) and representatives of a Legislative Assembly directly. Unlike the states, the Federal District does not have a constitution but a statute of government. Mexico City is coterminus and coextensive with the Federal District. State names and abbreviations for the 31 Mexican states and the Federal District: * AG Aguascalientes * BC Baja California * BS Baja California Sur * CH Chihuahua * CL Colima * CM Campeche * CO Coahuila * CS Chiapas * DF Distrito Federal * DG Durango * GR Guerrero * GT Guanajuato * HG Hidalgo * JA Jalisco * MI Michoacán * MO Morelos * MX State of México * NA Nayarit * NL Nuevo León * OA Oaxaca * PU Puebla * QR Quintana Roo * QT Querétaro * SI Sinaloa * SL San Luis Potosí * SO Sonora * TB Tabasco * TL Tlaxcala * TM Tamaulipas * VE Veracruz * YU Yucatán * ZA Zacatecas Foreign policy Traditionally, the Mexican government has sought to maintain its interests abroad and project its influence largely through moral persuasion rather than through political or economical pressure. Since the Mexican Revolution, and until the administration of President Ernesto Zedillo, Mexico had been known for its foreign policy or "doctrine" known as the Doctrina Estrada (Estrada Doctrine, named after its creator Genaro Estrada). The Doctrina Estrada was a foreign policy guideline of an enclosed view of sovereignty. It claimed that foreign governments should not judge, positively or negatively, the governments or changes in government of other nations, in that such action would imply a breach to its sovereignty. This policy was said to be based on the principles of Non-Intervention, Pacific Solution to Controversies, and Self-Determination of all nations. However, it has been argued that the policy has been "mis-used", as it was an implied international contract between the PRI-governments and foreign nations that Mexico would not judge what happened abroad, if other countries would not judge what happened in Mexico. During his Presidency, Vicente Fox appointed Jorge Castañeda to be his Secretary of Foreign Affairs. Castañeda immediately broke with the Estrada Doctrine, promoting what was called by critics the Castañeda Doctrine. The new foreign policy called for an openess and an acceptance of criticism from the international community, and the increase of Mexican involvement in Foreign Affairs. In lieu with this new openess in Mexico's foreign policy, some political parties have proposed an amendment of the Constitution in order to allow the Mexican Army, Air Force or Navy to collaborate with the United Nations in peace-keeping missions, or to provide military help to countries that officially ask for it. Economy of Mexico Mexico has a free market economy, and is firmly established as an upper middle-income country with the highest per capita income in nominal terms in Latin America, and it is the 13th largest economy in the world as measured in Gross Domestic Product in purchasing power parity. After the 1994 economic debacle, Mexico has made an impressive recovery, building a modern and diversified economy. Recent administrations have also improved infrastructure and opened competition in seaports, railroads, telecommunications, electricity generation, natural gas distribution and airports. According to the director for Colombia and Mexico of the World Bank, the population in extreme poverty has decreased from 24.2% to 17.6% in the general population and from 42% to 27.9% in rural areas from 2000-2004. Nonetheless, income inequality remains a problem, and huge gaps remain not only between rich and poor but also between the north and the south, the urban and the rural areas. Sharp contrasts in income and Human Development are also a grave problem in Mexico. The 2004 United Nations Human Development Index report for Mexico states that, Benito Juárez, one of the districts in the Distrito Federal and San Pedro Garza García, in the State of Nuevo León, would have a similar level of economic, educational and life expectancy development to that of Germany or New Zealand and Metlatonoc in the state of Guerrero, would have an HDI similar to that of Malawi. Many of the positive effects in poverty reduction and the increase in purchasing power of the middle class are attributed to the macroeconomic stability pursued by the last two administrations. GDP annual average growth for the period of 1995-2002 was 5.1%. The economic downturn in the United States also caused a similar pattern in Mexico, of which it rapidly recovered to grow 4.1% in 2005 and 3% in 2005. Inflation has reached a record low of 3.3% in 2005, and interest rates are low, which have spurred credit-consumption in the middle class. The Fox administration also provided monetary stability: budget deficit was further reduced and foreign debt was decreased to less than 20% of GDP. Mexico shares, with Chile the highest rating of long-term sovereign credit in Latin America. Being one of the most open countries in the world, almost 90% of Mexican trade has been put under free trade agreements with over 40 countries, of which the North American Free Trade Agreement remains the most influential: close to 90% of Mexican exports go to the United States and Canada, and close to 55% from its imports come from these two countries. Other major trade agreements have been signed with the European Union, Japan, Israel and many countries in Central and South America. Tourism in Mexico is a large industry, the third in importance. The most notable tourist draws are the ancient Meso-American ruins, and popular beach resorts. The coastal climate and unique culture – a fusion of the European (particularly Spanish) and the Meso-American – also make Mexico attractive. The peak tourists seasons in Mexico are during December and during July and August, with brief surges during the week before Easter and surges during spring break at many of the beach resort sites which are popular with vacationing college students from the United States. Ongoing economic concerns include the commercial and financial dependence on the US, low real wages, underemployment for a large segment of the population, inequitable income distribution (top 20% of income earners account for 55% of income), and few advancement opportunities for the largely Amerindian population in the impoverished southern states. Demographics of Mexico With a population of 103 million (2005 Census), Mexico is the most populous Spanish-speaking country in the world. The following is a list of the major metropolitan areas of Mexico with more than a million inhabitants, in order of population (as reported in the 2005 census): Rank Core City State(s) Population 1 Mexico City Federal District, Mexico, Hidalgo 19.23 million 2 Guadalajara Jalisco 4.10 million 3 Monterrey Nuevo León 3.66 million 4 Puebla Puebla, Tlaxcala 2.11 million 5 Toluca México 1.61 million 6 Tijuana Baja California 1.48 million 7 León Guanajuato 1.43 million 8 Ciudad Juárez Chihuahua 1.31 million 9 Torreón Coahuila, Durango 1.11 million Demographic Dynamics Mexican annual population growth has drastically decreased from a peak of 3.5% in 1965 to 0.99% in 2005. Life expectancy in 2006 was estimated to be at 75.4 years (72.6 male and 78.3 female). The states with the highest life expectancy are Baja California (75.9 years) and Nuevo Leon (75.6 years). The Federal District has a life expectancy of the same level as Baja California. The lowest levels are found in Chiapas (72.9), Oaxaca (73.2) and Guerrero (73.2 years). The mortality rate in 1970 was 9.7 per 1000 people; by 2001, the rate had dropped to 4.9 men per 1000 men and 3.8 women per 1000 women. The most common reasons for death in 2001 were heart problems (14.6% for men 17.6% for women) and cancer (11% for men and 15.8% for women). Mexican population is increasingly urban, with close to 75% living in cities. The five largest urban areas in Mexico (Mexico City, Guadalajara, Monterrey, Puebla and Toluca) are home of 30% of the country's population. Migration patterns within the country show positive migration to north-western and south-eastern states, and a negative rate of migration for the Federal District. While the annual population growth is still positive, the national net migration rate is negative (-4.7/1000), attributable to the emigration phenomenon of people from rural communities to the United States. Immigration Mexico is home of the largest number of American citizens abroad (estimated at one million), which represents 1% of the Mexican population and 25% of all American citizens abroad. Other significant communities of foreigners are those of Central and South Americans, most notably from Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Peru, Cuba, Venezuela, Guatemala and Colombia. Though estimations vary, the Argentine community is considered to be the second largest foreign community in the country (estimated somewhere between 30,000 and 150,000) . Throughout the 20th century, the country followed a policy of granting asylum to fellow Latin Americans and Europeans (mostly Spaniards in the 1940s) fleeing political persecution in their home countries. Discrepancies between the figures of official legal aliens and all foreign-born residents are quite large. The official figure for foreign-born residents in Mexico is 493,000 (since 2004), with a majority (86.9%) of these born in the United States (except Chiapas, where the majority of immigrants are from Central America). The five states with the most immigrants are Baja California (12.1% of total immigrants), Mexico City (the Federal District; 11.4%), Jalisco (9.9%), Chihuahua (9%) and Tamaulipas (7.3%). More than 54.6% of the immigrant population are fifteen years old or younger, while 9% are fifty or older. Ethnography Mexico is ethnically diverse, and the constitution defines the country to be a "pluricultural nation". Mestizos (those of European and Amerindian ancestry) form the largest group, making up to 60-75% of the total population. The